Sentences

Sentences
 
Introduction
I Know It When I See It: The Sentence
Sentence Structure: The Fab Four
Sentence Functions: The Four Tops
Alley Oops
 
Introduction
If someone asked you to define a sentence, do you think you could? You might be tempted to say, “No way!” I bet you do know a sentence when you see it. Prove me right; pick out the sentence from these four groups of words:
·                     Throughout people's ears grow entire their lives.
·                     Grow throughout people's entire ears lives their.
·                     Entire throughout lives ears grow people's their.
·                     People's ears grow throughout their entire lives.
Each of the four groups contains exactly the same words, but only one is a sentence: the last one. You were able to pick out the sentence so easily because you have an innate knowledge of how English works—knowledge you have absorbed from reading, speaking, listening, and watching.
But perhaps you need a little more work on sentences. Maybe you're not sure about the different kinds of sentences and how they're used. That's what you'll learn here. First, you learn about the two main parts of the sentence: the subject and the predicate. Then I teach you the four different types of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. Next come the four different sentence functions. Along the way, you learn how to fix the two most common sentence errors: fragments and run-ons.
I Know It When I See It: The Sentence
Sentence: Stop!
Sentence: You stop!
Sentence: You better stop right now.
Each of these three word groups is a sentence. That's because they each meet the three requirements for a sentence. To be a sentence, a group of words must …
Strictly Speaking
How can “Stop!” be a sentence, when it's clearly lacking a subject? It is a sentence because the subject, you, is understood rather than stated outright. A one-word command is the shortest possible English sentence.
·                     Have a subject (noun or pronoun).
·                     Have a predicate (verb or verb phrase).
·                     Express a complete thought.
A sentence has two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject includes the noun or pronoun that tells what the subject is about. The predicate includes the verb that describes what the subject is doing. Here are some examples of complete sentences.

Subject	Predicate
You	stop!
New York City	is called the “Big Apple.”
The forward with the knee brace	made 10 baskets.

Seek and Ye Shall Find
Being able to recognize the subject and the verb in a sentence will help you make sure that your own sentences are complete and clear. To check that you've included the subject and verb in your sentences, follow these steps:
1.            To find the subject, ask yourself, “Self, what word is the sentence describing?”
2.            To find an action verb, ask yourself, “Self, what did the subject do?”
3.            If you can't find an action verb, look for a linking verb. For example: Herman is the winner. “Is” is the linking verb.
Hidden Treasures
Some sentences are not that cooperative about the placement of their subject and verb, however. In most sentences, the subject will come before the verb. Not so with questions. In a question, the verb often comes before the subject. Here are some examples:
·             Is the frog in the freezer?
·             The subject of the sentence is “frog.”
·             Are you traveling this weekend?
·             The subject of the sentence is “you.”
To find the subject in a question, rewrite the question as a statement. The question “Is the frog in the freezer?” becomes “The frog is in the freezer.” Now the subject, frog, is in the usual position before the verb.
It can be equally tricky to find the subject in sentences that start with here or there. Remember that here or there never function as the subject of a sentence. For example:
·             Here is your frozen frog.
·             The subject of the sentence is “frog.”
·             There goes the frog, all nicely defrosted.
·             The subject of the sentence is still Mr. Frog.
 
Sentence Structure: The Fab Four
In Clauses, you learned that there are two types of clauses: independent and dependent. Recall that independent clauses are complete sentences because they have a subject and verb and express a complete thought. Dependent clauses, in contrast, cannot stand alone because they do not express a complete thought—even though they have a subject and a verb. Independent and dependent clauses can be used in a number of ways to form the four basic types of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. Time to make their acquaintance.
Simple Sentences: Simple Isn't as Simple Does
A simple sentence has one independent clause. That means it has one subject and one verb—although either or both can be compound. In addition, a simple sentence can have adjectives and adverbs. What a simple sentence can't have is another independent clause or any subordinate clauses. For example:
·                     Americans eat more bananas than they eat any other fruit.
·                     one subject, one verb
·                     David Letterman and Jay Leno host talk shows.
·                     compound subject, one verb
·                     My son toasts and butters his bagel.
·                     one subject, compound verb
·                     Don't shun the simple sentence—it's no simpleton. The simple sentence served Ernest Hemingway well; with its help, macho man Ernie snagged a Nobel Prize in Literature. In the following excerpt from The Sun Also Rises, Hemingway uses the simple sentence to convey powerful emotions:
·                     The driver started up the street. I settled back. Brett moved close to me. We sat close against each other. I put my arm around her and she rested against me comfortably. It was very hot and bright, and the houses looked sharply white. We turned out onto the Gran Via.
·                     “Oh, Jake,” Brett said, “we could have had such a damned good time together.”
·                     Ahead was a mounted policeman in khaki directing traffic. He raised his baton. The car slowed suddenly pressing Brett against me.
·                     “Yes,” I said. “Isn't it pretty to think so?”
Okay, so it's a real downer. You think they give Nobels for happy talk?
Compound Sentences: Compound Interest
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses. The independent clauses can be joined in one of two ways:
·                     With a coordinating conjunction: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
·                     With a semicolon (;)
As with a simple sentence, a compound sentence can't have any subordinate clauses. Here are some compound sentences for your reading pleasure.

Independent Clause	Conjunction or Semicolon	Independent Clause
Men are mammals	and	women are femammals.
Mushrooms grow in damp places	so	they look like umbrellas.
The largest mammals are found in the sea	;	there's nowhere else to put them.

You might also add a conjunctive adverb to this construction, as in this example: The largest mammals are found in the sea; after all, there's nowhere else to put them.
Complex Sentences: Not So Complex at All
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. The independent clause is called the “main clause.” These sentences use subordinating conjunctions to link ideas. As you check out these examples, see if you can find the subordinating conjunctions.
·                     Parallel lines never meet (independent clause) until (subordinating conjunction) you bend one of them (dependent clause).
·                     Many dead animals of the past changed to oil (independent clause) while (subordinating conjunction) others preferred to be gas (dependent clause).
·                     Even though (subordinating conjunction) the sun is a star (dependent clause), it knows how to change back to the sun in the daytime (independent clause).
The subordinating conjunctions are until, while, and even though.
Compound-Complex Sentences: The Big Kahuna
A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. The dependent clause can be part of the independent clause. For instance:

·                     When the heat comes,	the lakes dry up,
·                     dependent clause	independent clause
·                     and farmers know the crops will fail.
·                     independent clause
·                     I planned to drive to work,	but I couldn't
·                     independent clause	independent clause
·                     until the mechanic repaired my car.
·                     dependent clause

The Choice Is Yours
Decisions, decisions: Now that you know you have four different sentence types at your disposal, which ones should you use? Effective communication requires not only that you write complete sentences, but also that you write sentences that say exactly what you mean. Try these six guidelines as you decide which sentence types to use and when:
·                     Every sentence should provide clear and complete information.
·                     Most effective sentences are concise, conveying their meaning in as few words as possible.
·                     Effective sentences stress the main point or the most important detail. In most cases, the main point is located in the main clause to make it easier to find.
·                     Your choice of sentences depends on your audience. For example, you would use simple sentences and short words if your readers were children, while an audience of engineers would call for more technical language and longer sentences.
·                     Always consider your purpose for writing before you select a sentence type.
·                     The rhythm and pacing of your writing is determined by your sentences.
Before you shift into panic mode, you should know that most writers use a combination of all four sentence types to convey their meaning. Even Ernest Hemingway slipped a compound sentence or two in among all those simple sentences.
Face the Music
But now it's time to see what's what, who's who, and where you're at with this sentence stuff. To do so, label each of the following sentences as simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex.
·                     ____ 1. If at first you don't succeed, destroy all evidence that you tried.
·                     ____ 2. The hardness of the butter is proportional to the softness of the bread.
·                     ____ 3. You never really learn to swear until you learn to drive.
·                     ____ 4. It takes about half a gallon of water to cook spaghetti, and about a gallon of water to clean the pot.
·                     ____ 5. Monday is an awful way to spend one-seventh of your life.
·                     ____ 6. Genetics explains why you look like your father and if you don't, why you should.
·                     ____ 7. To succeed in politics, it is often necessary to rise above your principles.
·                     ____ 8. Two wrongs are only the beginning.
·                     ____ 9. When oxygen is combined with anything, heat is given off, a process known as “constipation.”
·                     ____ 10. To steal ideas from one person is plagiarism; to steal from many is research.

Answers
1. complex	6. compound-complex
2. simple	7. complex
3. complex	8. simple
4. compound	9. compound-complex
5. simple	10. compound

Sentence Functions: The Four Tops
In addition to classifying sentences by the number of clauses they contain, you can pigeonhole sentences according to their functions. There are four sentence functions in English: declarative, exclamatory, interrogative, and imperative.
1.            Declarative sentences state an idea. They end with a period. For example:
o                  The first toilet ever seen on television was on Leave It to Beaver.
o                  The problem with the gene pool is that there's no lifeguard.
2.            Exclamatory sentences show strong emotions. They end with an exclamation mark. For example:
o                  What a mess this room is!
o                  The cake is ruined!
3.            Interrogative sentences ask a question. As you would expect, they end with a question mark. For instance:
o                  How you gonna keep 'em down on the farm when they've seen Paris?
o                  Why is it possible to tickle someone else but not to tickle yourself?
4.            Imperative sentences give orders or directions, and so end with a period or an exclamation mark. For instance:
o                  Sit down and listen!
o                  Fasten your seatbelts when the sign is illuminated.
Alley Oops
Why learn the different types of sentences and their functions? So you can write correct ones, bubba. When your sentences aren't correct, no one will know what the dickens you're saying. This is not a good thing.
There are two basic types of sentence errors: fragments and run-ons. These problems with sentence construction cause clumsy, unpolished writing and speech. Let's look at each of these sentence errors in detail so you'll be able to fix them with ease.
Fragments: Lost in Place
As its name suggests, a sentence fragment is a group of words that do not express a complete thought. Most times, a fragment is missing a subject, a verb, or both. Other times, a fragment may have a subject and a verb but still not express a complete thought. Fragments don't discriminate: They can be phrases as well as clauses.
There are three main ways that fragments occur. And here they are:
·             Fragments occur when a dependent clause masquerades as a sentence. For example:
·             Because Lincoln Logs were invented by Frank Lloyd Wright's son.
·             Because the most common name in the world is Mohammed.
·             Fragments also happen when a phrase is cut off from the sentence it describes. For instance:
·             Used to cure fleas and ticks.
·             Hoping to keep the ceiling from collapsing.
·             You can also create a fragment if you use the wrong form of a verb. For example:
·             The writer gone to the office.
·             The pearl being the main ingredient in many love potions.
·             You can correct a fragment two ways:
·             Add the missing part to the sentence
·             Fragment: In the cabinet over the bookshelf.
·             Complete: I keep extra supplies in the cabinet over the bookshelf.
·             Omit the subordinating conjunction or connect it to another sentence.
·             Fragment: When you go to the party.
·             Complete: When you go to the party, be sure to head straight for the shrimp and caviar and chow down.
Run-Ons and Comma Splices: It Could Be a Stretch
A run-on sentence is two incorrectly joined independent clauses. A comma splice is a run-on with a comma where the two independent clauses run together. When your sentences run together, your ideas are garbled. For instance:
·             Most people who drink coffee don't know where it comes from it is actually the fruit of an evergreen tree.
·             Robert Wadlow was the tallest person who ever lived he was 8 feet 11 inches tall when he died in 1940.
·             So far, so good, but there are two important facts to realize about run-ons:
·             Run-ons are not necessarily long. Some can be quite short, in fact. For instance:
·             She walked he ran.
·             Birds chirp cows moo.
·             The second clause of a run-on often begins with a pronoun.
·             Godzilla wants to sleep he is exhausted from destroying Tokyo.
·             You can correct a run-on sentence in one of four ways. Let's use Godzilla as our example.
·             Separate the run-on into two sentences with end punctuation such as periods, exclamation marks, and question marks.
·             Godzilla wants to sleep. He is exhausted from destroying Tokyo.
·             Add a coordinating conjunction (and, nor, but, or, for, yet, or so) to create a compound sentence.
·             Godzilla wants to sleep, for he is exhausted from destroying Tokyo.
·             Add a subordinating conjunction to create a complex sentence.
·             Godzilla wants to sleep, because he is exhausted from destroying Tokyo.
·             Use a semicolon to create a compound sentence.
·             Godzilla wants to sleep; he is exhausted from destroying Tokyo.
Seventh-Inning Stretch
Take a few minutes to fix the fragments and run-ons in these two anecdotes.
1.            In the late 1900s, the man who was shot out of the cannon every day. At the Barnum and Bailey Circus decided to quit his wife had asked him to find a less risky way of making a living P. T. Barnum hated to lose a good man. So he sent him a message, “I beg you to reconsider—men of your caliber are hard to find.”
2.            In 1946, Winston Churchill traveled to Fulton, Missouri, to deliver a speech. Which turned out to be his famous Iron Curtain address. And to be present at the dedication of a bust in his honor. After his speech, a rather attractive and ample woman approached the wartime prime minister of England and said, “Mr. Churchill, I traveled more than a hundred miles this morning. For the unveiling of your bust.” Churchill, who was known far and wide for his quick wit, replied, “Madam, I assure you, in that regard I would gladly return the favor.”
Answers
Possible responses:
1.       In the late 1900s, the man who was shot out of the cannon every day at the Barnum and Bailey Circus decided to quit because his wife had asked him to find a less risky way of making a living. P. T. Barnum hated to lose a good man, so he sent him a message, “I beg you to reconsider—men of your caliber are hard to find.”
2.       In 1946, Winston Churchill traveled to Fulton, Missouri, to deliver a speech, which turned out to be his famous Iron Curtain address, and to be present at the dedication of a bust in his honor. After his speech, a rather attractive and ample woman approached the wartime prime minister of England and said, “Mr. Churchill, I traveled more than a hundred miles this morning for the unveiling of your bust.” Churchill, who was known far and wide for his quick wit, replied, “Madam, I assure you, in that regard I would gladly return the favor.”